LMLechko

Chapter 3, part 1
An Introduction to The Cellular Level of Organization
Learning Objectives
List the main points of the cell theory.
Describe the chief structural features of the cell membrane.
Describe the organelles of a typical cell, and give their specific functions.
Summarize the process of protein synthesis.
Describe the various transport mechanisms used by cells, and relate this to the transmembrane potential.
Describe the cell life cycle, mitosis and cellular differentiation.
SECTION 3-1 An Introduction to Cells
The cell theory states:
Cells are the building blocks of all plants and animals
Cells are produced by the division of preexisting cells
Cells are the smallest units that perform all vital physiological functions
Each cell maintains homeostasis at the cellular level
Homeostasis at higher levels reflects combined, coordinated action of many cells
Figure 3.1 The Diversity of Cells in the Human Body
Cell biology
Cytology, the study of the structure and function of cells
The human body contains both somatic and sex cells
Figure 3.2 The Anatomy of a Representative Cell
A typical cell
Is surrounded by extracellular fluid, which is the interstitial fluid of the tissue
Has an outer boundary called the cell membrane or plasma membrane
SECTION 3-2 The Cell Membrane
Cell membrane functions include:
Physical isolation
Regulation of exchange with the environment
Structural support
Figure 3.3 The Cell Membrane
The cell membrane is a phospholipid bilayer with proteins, lipids and carbohydrates.
Membrane proteins include:
Integral proteins
Peripheral proteins
Anchoring proteins
Recognition proteins
Receptor proteins
Carrier proteins
Channels
Figure 3.4 Membrane proteins
Membrane carbohydrates form the glycocalyx
Proteoglycans
Glycolipids
Glycoproteins

Chapter 18, part 3
The Endocrine System
SECTION 18-6 The Adrenal Glands
Adrenal cortex
Manufactures steroid hormones (corticosteroids)
Cortex divided into three layers
Zona glomerulosa (produces mineralocorticoids)
Zona fasciculate (produces glucocorticoids)
Zona reticularis (produces androgens)
Figure 18.16 The Adrenal Gland
Figure 18.17 Adrenal Abnormalities
Adrenal medulla
Produces epinephrine (~75 - 80%)
Produces norepinephrine (~25-30%)
SECTION 18-7 The Pineal Gland
Pineal gland
Contains pinealocytes
Synthesize melatonin
Suggested functions include inhibiting reproductive function, protecting against damage by free radicals, setting circadian rhythms
SECTION 18-1 The Pancreas
The pancreatic islets
Clusters of endocrine cells within the pancreas called Islets of Langerhans or pancreatic islets
Alpha cells secrete glucagons
Beta cells secrete insulin
Delta cells secrete GH-IH
F cells secrete pancreatic polypeptide
Figure 18.18 The Endocrine Pancreas
Insulin and glucagon
Insulin lowers blood glucose by increasing the rate of glucose uptake and utilization
Glucagon raises blood glucose by increasing the rates of glycogen breakdown and glucose manufacture by the liver
Figure 18.19 The Regulation of Blood Glucose Concentrations
SECTION 18-9 The Endocrine Tissues of Other Systems
The intestines
Produce hormones important to the coordination of digestive activities
The kidneys
Produce calcitriol and erythropoietin (EPO) and the enzyme rennin
Calcitriol = stimulates calcium and phosphate ion absorption along the digestive tract
EPO stimulates red blood cell production by bone marrow
Renin converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I
Angiotensin I converted to angiotensin II in the lungs
Stimulates adrenal production of aldosterone
Stimulates pituitary gland release of ADH
Promotes thirst
Elevates blood pressure
Figure 18.20 Endocrine Functions of the Kidneys
Figure 18.20 Endocrine Functions of the Kidneys
The heart
Specialized muscle cells produce natriuretic peptides when blood pressure becomes excessive
Generally oppose actions of angiotensin II
The thymus
Produces thymosins
Help develop and maintain normal immune defenses
The gonads
Interstitial cells of the testes produce testosterone
Most important sex hormone in males
In females, oocytes develop in follicles
Follicle cells produce estrogens
After ovulation, the follicle cells form a corpus luteum that releases a mixture of estrogens and progesterone
Adipose tissues secrete
Leptin, a feedback control for appetite
Resistin, which reduces insulin sensitivity
SECTION 18-10 Patterns of Hormonal Interaction
Hormones often interact, producing
Antagonistic (opposing) effects
Synergistic (additive) effects
Permissive effects (one hormone is required for the other to produce its effect)
Integrative effects (hormones produce different but complimentary results)
Hormones and growth
Normal growth requires the interaction of several endocrine organs
Six hormones are important
GH
Thyroid hormones
Insulin
PTH
Calcitriol
Reproductive hormones
Hormones and stress
Stress = any condition that threatens homeostasis
GAS (General Adaptation Syndrome) is our bodies response to stress-causing factors
Three phases to GAS
Alarm phase (immediate, fight or flight, directed by the sympathetic nervous system)
Resistance phase (dominated by glucocorticoids)
Exhaustion phase (breakdown of homeostatic regulation and failure of one or more organ systems)
Figure 18.21 The General Adaptation Syndrome
Figure 18.21 The General Adaptation Syndrome
Figure 18.21 The General Adaptation Syndrome
Hormones and behavior
Many hormones affect the CNS
Changes in the normal mixture of hormones significantly alters intellectual capabilities, memory, learning and emotional states
SECTION 18-11 Aging and Hormone Production
Endocrine system
Few functional changes with age
Chief change is a decline in concentration of reproductive hormones
You should now be familiar with:
The major chemical classes and general mechanisms of hormones.
The location and structure of the pituitary gland, and its structural and functional relationships with the hypothalamus.
The location and structure of each of the endocrine glands.
The hormones produced by each of the endocrine glands, and the functions of those hormones.
You should now be familiar with:
The functions of the hormones produced by the kidneys, heart, thymus, testes, ovaries and adipose tissue.
How hormones interact to produce coordinated physiological responses.

Chapter 18, part 2
The Endocrine System
Hypophyseal portal system
All blood entering the portal system will reach the intended target cells before returning to the general circulation
Figure 18.7 The Hypophyseal Portal System
Figure 18.8 Feedback control of Endocrine Secretion
Figure 18.8 Feedback control of Endocrine Secretion
Hormones of the adenohypophysis
Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
Triggers the release of thyroid hormones
Thyrotropin releasing hormone promotes the release of TSH
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Stimulates the release of glucocorticoids by the adrenal gland
Corticotrophin releasing hormone causes the secretion of ACTH
Hormones of the adenohypophysis
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
Stimulates follicle development and estrogen secretion in females and sperm production in males
Leutinizing hormone (LH)
Causes ovulation and progestin production in females and androgen production in males
Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GNRH) promotes the secretion of FSH and LH
Hormones of the adenohypophysis
Prolactin (PH)
Stimulates the development of mammary glands and milk production
Growth hormone (GH or somatotropin)
Stimulates cell growth and replication through release of somatomedins or IGF
Growth-hormone releasing hormone (GH-RH)
Growth-hormone inhibiting hormone (GH-IH)
Melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH)
May be secreted by the pars intermedia during fetal development, early childhood, pregnancy or certain diseases
Stimulates melanocytes to produce melanin
The posterior lobe of the pituitary gland (neurohypophysis)
Contains axons of hypothalamic nerves
neurons of the supraoptic nucleus manufacture antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Decreases the amount of water lost at the kidneys
Elevates blood pressure
The posterior lobe of the pituitary gland (neurohypophysis)
Neurons of the paraventricular nucleus manufacture oxytocin
Stimulates contractile cells in mammary glands
Stimulates smooth muscle cells in uterus
Figure 18.9 Pituitary Hormones and Their Targets
SECTION 18-4 The Thyroid Gland
The thyroid
Lies near the thyroid cartilage of the larynx
Two lobes connected by an isthmus
Figure 18.11 The Thyroid Gland
Figure 18.11 The Thyroid Gland
Thyroid follicles and thyroid hormones
Thyroid gland contains numerous follicles
Release several hormones such as thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3)
Thyroid hormones end up attached to thyroid binding globulins (TBG)
Some are attached to transthyretin or albumin
Figure 18.12 The Thyroid Follicles
Figure 18.12 The Thyroid Follicles
Thyroid hormones
Held in storage
Bound to mitochondria, thereby increasing ATP production
Bound to receptors activating genes that control energy utilization
Exert a calorigenic effect
Cells of the thyroid gland
C cells produce calcitonin
Helps regulate calcium concentration in body fluids
Figure 18.13 Thyroid Disorders
SECTION 18-5 The Parathyroid Glands
Four parathyroid glands
Embedded in the posterior surface of the thyroid gland
Chief cells produce parathyroid hormone (PTH) in response to lower than normal calcium concentrations
Parathyroid hormones plus calcitriol are primary regulators of calcium levels in healthy adults
Figure 18.14 The Parathyroid Glands
Figure 18.15 The Homeostatic Regulation of Calcium Ion Concentrations

Chapter 2, part 1
The Chemical Level of Organization
Learning Objectives
Describe an atom and compare the ways atoms combine to form molecules.
Distinguish among the types of chemical reactions that are important to physiology.
Describe the role of enzymes in metabolism.
Distinguish between organic and inorganic compounds.
Explain the importance of water, pH and buffers to living systems.
Discuss the structures and functions of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids and high energy compounds.
SECTION 2-1 Atoms, Molecules and Bonds
Atoms are the smallest stable units of matter
Subatomic particles
Protons = positive charge; weight of approximately 1 Dalton
Neutrons = no charge; weight similar to protons
Electrons = negative charge; weigh 1/1836th Dalton
Protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus; electrons occupy electron cloud
Atomic number = proton number; atomic mass = protons and neutrons
Isotopes are elements with similar numbers of protons but different numbers of neutron
Figure 2.1 Hydrogen Atoms
Electrons occupy a series of energy levels or electron shells.
The outermost electron shell determines the reactivity of the element.
Figure 2.2 Atoms and Energy Levels
Atoms combine through chemical reactions
Molecule = a chemical structure consisting of molecules held together by covalent bonds
Compound = a chemical substance composed of atoms of two or more elements
There are three types of bond: Ionic, covalent, and hydrogen
Ionic = attraction between positive cations and negative anions
Figure 2.3 Ionic Bonding
Covalent bonds exist between atoms that share electrons to form a molecule
Double covalent bond
Non-polar covalent bond
Polar covalent bond
Hydrogen bonds are weak forces that affect the shape and properties of compounds
Polar covalent bonds that occur when hydrogen covalently bonds with another element
Figure 2.5 Polar Covalent Bonds and the Structure of Water
Figure 2.6 Hydrogen Bonds
Matter and chemical notation
Matter can exist as a solid, liquid or gas
Depends on the interaction of the component atoms or molecules
Molecular weight is the sum of the atomic weights of the component atoms
Chemical notation
Short-hand that describes chemical compounds and reactions
See table 2.2 for examples of chemical notation
SECTION 2-2 Chemical Reactions
A chemical reaction occurs when reactants combine to generate one or more products
All chemical reactions in the body constitutes metabolism
Metabolism provides for the capture, storage and release of energy
Basic energy concepts
Work = movement of an object or change in its physical structure
Energy = the capacity to perform work
Kinetic energy is energy of motion
Potential energy is stored energy resulting from position or structure
Conversions are not 100% efficient, resulting in release of heat
Metabolism
Types of reaction
Decomposition
Synthesis
Exchange
Metabolism is the sum of all reactions
Through catabolism cells gain energy (break down of complex molecules)
Anabolism uses energy (synthesis of new molecules)
Reversible reactions
All reactions are theoretically reversible
At equilibrium the rates of two opposing reactions are in balance
Anabolism = catabolism
Enzymes, energy and chemical reactions
Activation energy is the amount of energy needed to begin a reaction
Enzymes are catalysts
Reduce energy of activation without being permanently changed or used up
Promote chemical reactions
Figure 2.7 Enzymes and Activation Energy
SECTION 2-3 Inorganic Compounds
Nutrients and Metabolites
Nutrients are essential chemical compounds obtained from the diet
Metabolites are molecules synthesized or broken down inside the body
These can be classified as organic or inorganic compounds
Organic compounds have carbon and hydrogen as their primary structural component
Inorganic compounds are not primarily carbon and hydrogen
Water and its properties
Water is the most important constituent of the body
Solution is a uniform mixture of two or more substances
Solvent is the medium in which molecules of solute are dispersed
Water is the solvent in aqueous solutions
Figure 2.8 Water molecules and solutions
Electrolytes undergo ionization
Compounds that interact readily with water are hydrophilic
Compounds that do not interact with water are hydrophobic
pH is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions solution
Neutral
Acidic
Basic
Acids and Bases
Acids release hydrogen ions into solution
Bases remove hydrogen ions from solution
Strong acids and strong bases ionize completely
Weak acids and weak bases do not ionize
Figure 2.9 pH and Hydrogen Ion Concentration
Salts and buffers
Salt = an electrolyte whose cation is not hydrogen and whose anion is not hydroxide
Buffers remove or replace hydrogen ions in solution
Buffer systems maintain the pH of body fluids

Here is 18-1. More detail to follow in class

Chapter 18, part 1
The Endocrine System
Learning Objectives
Compare the major chemical classes and general mechanisms of hormones.
Describe the location and structure of the pituitary gland, and explain its structural and functional relationships with the hypothalamus.
Describe the location and structure of each of the endocrine glands.
Learning Objectives
Identify the hormones produced by each of the endocrine glands and specify the functions of those hormones.
Describe the functions of the hormones produced by the kidneys, heart, thymus, testes, ovaries and adipose tissue.
Explain how hormones interact to produce coordinated physiological responses.
SECTION 18-1 Intercellular Communication
Endocrine versus Nervous system
Nervous system performs short term crisis management
Endocrine system regulates long term ongoing metabolic
Endocrine communication is carried out by endocrine cells releasing hormones
Alter metabolic activities of tissues and organs
Target cells
Paracrine communication involves chemical messengers between cells within one tissue
SECTION 18-2 An Overview of the Endocrine System
Endocrine system
Includes all cells and endocrine tissues that produce hormones or paracrine factors
Figure 18.1 The Endocrine System
Hormone structure
Amino acid derivatives
Structurally similar to amino acids
Peptide hormones
Chains of amino acids
Lipid derivatives
Steroid hormones and eicosanoids
Figure 18.2 A Structural Classification of Hormones
Hormones can be
Freely circulating
Rapidly removed from bloodstream
Bound to transport proteins
Mechanisms of hormone action
Receptors for catecholamines, peptide hormones, eicosanoids are in the cell membranes of target cells
Thyroid and steroid hormones cross the membrane and bind to receptors in the cytoplasm or nucleus
Figure 18.3 G Proteins and Hormone Activity
Figure 18.4 Hormone Effects on Gene Activity
Control of endocrine activity
Endocrine reflexes are the counterparts of neural reflexes
Hypothalamus regulates the activity of the nervous and endocrine systems
Secreting regulatory hormones that control the anterior pituitary gland
Releasing hormones at the posterior pituitary gland
Exerts direct neural control over the endocrine cells of the adrenal medullae
Figure 18.5 Three Methods of Hypothalamic Control over the Endocrine System
SECTION 18-3 The Pituitary Gland
Hypophysis
Releases nine important peptide hormones
All nine bind to membrane receptors and use cyclic AMP as a second messenger
Figure 18.6 The Anatomy and Orientation of the Pituitary Gland
The anterior lobe (adenohypophysis)
Subdivided into the pars distalis, pars intermedia and pars tuberalis
At the median eminence, neurons release regulatory factors through fenestrated capillaries
Releasing hormones
Inhibiting hormones

SECTION 17-4 Equilibrium and Hearing
Hearing
The special sense of hearing and equilibrium are provided by the inner ear which is a receptor complex located in the peterous part of the temporal bone of the skull
Equilibrium sensations inform us of the position of the head in space
Hearing enables us to detect and interpret sound waves
The basic mechanisms for both senses are hair cells, a mechanical sensors
The anatomy of the ear
Three anatomical regions
External ear
Middle ear
Inner ear
Both equilibrium and hearing are provided by receptors of the inner ear
Anatomy of the ear – External Ear: visible portion, collects and directs sound toward the middle ear: compostion
Auricle or pinnae surrounds the ear
External acoustic meatus ends on tympanic membrane
External ear
Includes the fleshy and cartilaginous auricle
This surrounds the external acoustic canal or ear canal
This is the passage way that ends on the tympanic membrane
Protective features found here in the form of ceruminous glands which produce cerumen
Figure 17.20 The Anatomy of the Ear
Middle ear
Communicates with pharynx via pharyngotympanic membrane
Middle ear encloses and protects the auditory ossicles
Figure 17.21 The Middle Ear
Middle Ear
Also called the tympanic cavity
It is separated from the external acoustic canal by the tympanic membrane
Communicates with the nasopharnyx through the auditory tube and the mastoid air cells
Also called the pharyngotympanic tube which permits equalization of air
Auditory Ossicles
Hammer
Anvil
Stirrup
What are the articulations?
Malleus attaches to the tympanic membrane
The stapes articulates on the oval window
How is sound carried?
It is the articulations of the hammer on the vibrating tympanic membrane that is passed to the stapes which moves up and down on the oval window
It is really a rocking motion on the stapes
This is a level design that amplifies sound because the tympanic membrane is heavier then the membrane of the oval window

What is the job of the inner ear?
The sense of equilibrium and hearing are provided by receptors of the inner ear
Remember that these receptors lie within a collection of fluid filled chambers known as the membranous labyrinth which is filled with an electrolytic soln called endolymph
Inner ear: bony labyrinth: function
Bony labyrinth surrounds and protects membranous labyrinth
Between the bony and membranous labyrinth is found perilymph (CSF)
What are the divisions of the bony labyrinth?
Vestibule: pair of membraneous sacs
Saccule
uticle
Semicircular canals
stimulated by rotation of the head
Cochlea
Provide the sense of hearing
Figure 17.22 The Inner Ear
Components of the inner ear: quick review: are what?
Vestibule contains the utricle and saccule
Semicircular canals contain the semicircular ducts
Cochlea contains the cochlear duct
Windows: two types: functions:
Round window separates the perilymph from the air spaces of the middle ear
Oval window connected to the base of the stapes
Basic receptors of inner ear are hair cells
Provide information about the direction and strength of stimuli
Receptors of the inner ear
These sensory receptors are called hair cells
These cells are surrounded by supporting cells and are monitored by sensory afferent fibers
The hair like structures have two components
Stereocilia: 80 – 100 present
Kinocilium: single large cilia
Only move when external forces push against them
What kind of information will these cilia provide?
Direction and strength of the mechanical stimulation and response varies depending on the location of the cilia
Types of stimulation can include:
Gravity or acceleration in the vestibule
Rotation in the semicircular canal
Sound in the cochlea

How is equilibrium information provided?
Provided by receptors of the vestibular complex
The information provided is based on rotational movements of the head
Thus the saccule and the utricle convey information with respect to gravity
They are stimulated by sudden acceleration (stop or start)

The semicircular ducts
Thus the sensory receptors are quiet during non movement
What is this movement?
The kinocilia and the sterocilia are embeded in the cupula
Cupula floats on the endolymph
The movement of ones head distorts the receptor processes
Movement is based on direction
When there is no further movement, the cupula returns to the rest position
Thus there is analysis of motion in three planes

What is the job of Utricle and Saccule?
Both provide information about equilibrium whether or not the body is stationary or moving
Equilibrium: The whole structure è otolith
Anterior, posterior and lateral semicircular ducts are continuous with the utricle
Each duct contains an ampulla with a gelatinous cupula and associated kinocilia and sterocilia (review)
Saccule and utricle connected by a passageway continuous with the endolymphatic duct
Terminates in the endolymphatic sac
Saccule and utricle have hair cells clustered in an oval structure called the maculae
Cilia contact the statoconia ( calcium carbonate crystals)
Figure 17.23 The Vestibular Complex
Figure 17.23 The Vestibular Complex
Figure 17.23 The Vestibular Complex
Vestibular neural pathway: How is monitoring achieved?
Hairs of the vestribular and semicircular ducts are monitored by sensory neurons located in the vestibular ganglia
Axons form the vestibular branch of the vestibular cocohlear nerve (VIII)
Synapses within the vestibular nuclei between the pons and the medulla oblongata
Job functions; 4 of them
Integrating sensory information about balance and equilibrium that arrives from both sides of the head
Relay information from the vestibular complex to the cerebellum
Relay information from the vestibular complexd to the cerebral cortex for a conscious position of position of head
Send motor commands to nuclei in brain stem and spinal cord

What kind of information is sent?
Reflexive motor commands that are issued are distributed to motor nuclei for cranial nerves III, IV, VI, and XI
Descend down the vestibularspinal tracts
Adjust muscle tone
Figure 17.24 Pathways for Equilibrium Sensation
Hearing
Cochlear duct lies between the vestibular duct and the tympanic duct
Hair cells of the cochlear duct lie within the Organ of Corti
Intensity is the energy content of a sound
Measured in decibels
Figure 17.25 The Cochlea
Figure 17.26 The Organ Of Corti
Hearing
The receptors of the cochlear duct provide the sense of hearing that enables us to detect soft sounds
Hair cells responsible for picking up this auditory sound
Location prevents them from responding to any other stimuli
Whole process is based on pressure waves
This is the fluctuations of perilymph which determine the frequency and intensity
Pathway of sound
Sound waves travel toward tympanic membrane, which vibrates
Auditory ossicles conduct the vibration into the inner ear
Tensor tympani and stapedius muscles contract to reduce the amount of movement when loud sounds arrive
Movement at the oval window applies pressure to the perilymph of the cochlear duct
Pressure waves distort basilar membrane
Hair cells of the Organ of Corti are pushed against the tectoral membrane
It is the distortion of the basiliar membrane pressing on the tectorial membrane that results in the generation of an action potential in the receptors
Figure 17.28 Sound and Hearing
Figure 17.29 Sound and Hearing
Neural pathway; location of the nerve fibers
Sensory neurons of hearing are located in the spiral ganglion of the cochlea
Afferent fibers form the cochlear branch of cranial nerve VIII
Synapse at the cochlear nucleus
The steps:
Sound waves arrive at the tympanic membrane
Tympanic membrane causes displacement of auditory ossciles
Stapes moves against the oval window
Pressure waves distort the basilar membrane
Vibration of the basilar membrane
Relay information along the afferent branch of the Vestibularcodhlear nerve VIII to the cochlear nucleus then crosses to opposite side of the brain to the inferior colliculus
Then to the thalamus and finally to the auditory cortex of the temporal lobe
You should now be familiar with:
The sensory organs of smell, and the olfactory pathways in the brain.
The accessory and internal structures of the eye, and their functions.
How light stimulates the production of nerve impulses, and the visual pathways.
The structures of the external and middle ear and how they function.
The parts of the inner ear and their roles in equilibrium and hearing.
The pathways for the sensations of equilibrium and hearing.