LMLechko

Are you aware that there is really only one meeting session to go over all thwe material?
I do not believe that we can do that. Especially with the genetic cross problems and developmental models. Really need to have the lab final on the day of the lecture fianl. It really will not make a difference. Material is the same, it would still be like studying once. You just have an extra week to accomplish the task!


sincerely,

Mr. Lechko


send e-mail; canucmelml@hotmail.com

Chapter 28, part 4
The Reproductive System
Uterine cycle
Repeating series of changes in the endometrium
Continues from menarche to menopause
Menses
Degeneration of the endometrium
Menstruation
Proliferative phase
Restoration of the endometrium
Secretory phase
Endometrial glands enlarge and accelerate their rates of secretion
Figure 28.20 The Uterine Cycle
The vagina
Major functions
Passageway for elimination of menstrual fluids
Receives the penis during sexual intercourse
Forms the inferior portion of the birth canal
Figure 28.21 The Histology of the Vagina
External genitalia
Vulva
Vestibule
Labia minora and majora
Paraurethral glands
Clitoris
Lesser and greater vestibular glands
Figure 28.22 The Female External Genitalia
Mammary glands
Pectoral fat pad
Nipple surrounded by the areola
Function in lactation under control of reproductive hormones
Figure 28.23 The Mammary Glands
Hormones of the female reproductive cycle
Control the reproductive cycle
Coordinate the ovarian and uterine cycles
Hormones of the female reproductive cycle
Key hormones include:
FSH
Stimulates follicular development
LH
Maintains structure and secretory function of corpus luteum
Estrogens
Have multiple functions
Progesterones
Stimulate endometrial growth and secretion
Figure 28.25 The Hormonal Regulation of Ovarian Activity
Figure 28.26 The Hormonal Regulation of the Female Reproductive Cycle
Figure 28.26 The Hormonal Regulation of the Female Reproductive Cycle
SECTION 28-4 The Physiology of Sexual Intercourse
Male sexual function
Arousal
Leads to erection of the penis
Parasympathetic outflow over the pelvic nerves
Emission and ejaculation
Occur under sympathetic stimulation
Results in semen being pushed toward external urethral opening
Detumescence
Subsidence of erection
Mediated by the sympathetic nervous system
Female sexual function
Stages are comparable to those of male sexual function
Arousal causes clitoral erection
Vaginal surfaces are moistened
Parasympathetic stimulation causes engorgement of blood vessels in the nipples
SECTION 28-5 Aging and the Reproductive System
Menopause
The time that ovulation and menstruation cease
Typically around age 45-55
Accompanied by a decline in circulating estrogen and progesterone
Rise in GnRH, FSH, LH
Male climacteric
Levels of circulating testosterone begin to decline
FSH and LH levels rise
Gradual reduction in sexual activity
You should now be familiar with:
The components of the reproductive system, and their functions
The components of the male and female reproductive systems
The processes of meiosis and gametogenesis in both sexes
You should now be familiar with:
The roles played by the male reproductive tract and accessory glands in the functional maturation, nourishment, storage, and transport of spermatozoa
The anatomical, physiological, and hormonal aspects of the male and female reproductive cycles
The physiology of sexual intercourse

Chapter 28, part 3
The Reproductive System
SECTION 28-3 The Reproductive System of the Female
Principle organs of the female reproductive system
Ovaries
Uterine tubes
Uterus
Vagina
Support and stabilization
Ovaries, uterine tubes and uterus enclosed within broad ligament
Mesovarium supports and stabilizes ovary
Figure 28.13 The Female Reproductive System
The ovaries
Held in position by ovarian and suspensory ligaments
Blood vessels enter at ovarian hilus
Tunica albuginea covers ovary
Figure 28.14 The Ovaries and Their Relationships to the Uterine Tube and Uterus
Oogenesis
Ovum production
Occurs monthly in ovarian follicles
Part of ovarian cycle
Follicular phase (preovulatory)
Luteal phase (postovulatory)
Figure 28.15 Oogenesis
The ovarian cycle
Steps in the ovarian cycle
Formation of primary, secondary, and tertiary follicles
Ovulation
Formation and degeneration of the corpus luteum
Degradation of the corpus luteum
Figure 28.16 The Ovarian Cycle
Figure 28.16 The Ovarian Cycle
The Uterine tubes
Uterine tubes (Fallopian tubes or oviducts)
Infundibulum
End closest to the ovary with numerous fimbriae
Ampulla
The middle portion
Isthmus
A short segment connected to the uterine wall
Each uterine tube opens directly into uterine cavity
Fertilization occurs in uterine tube
12-24 hours after ovulation
During passage from infundibulum to uterus
Figure 28.17 The Uterine Tubes
The uterus
Muscular organ
Mechanical protection
Nutritional support
Waste removal for the developing embryo and fetus
Supported by the broad ligament and 3 pairs of suspensory ligaments
Uterus
Major anatomical landmarks
Body
Isthmus
Cervix
Cervical os (internal orifice)
Uterine cavity
Cervical canal
Internal os (internal orifice)
Uterine wall consists of three layers:
Myometrium – outer muscular layer
Endometrium – a thin, inner, glandular mucosa
Perimetrium – an incomplete serosa continuous with the peritoneum
Figure 28.18 The Uterus
Figure 28.18 The Uterus
Figure 28.19 The Uterine Wall
Figure 28.19 The Uterine Wall

Chapter 28, part 2
The Reproductive System
Spermatogenesis
Seminiferous tubules
Contain spermatogonia
Stem cells involved in spermatogenesis
Contain sustentacular cells
Sustain and promote development of sperm
Figure 28.5 The Seminiferous Tubules
Figure 28.5 The Seminiferous Tubules
Figure 28.6 Chromosomes in Mitosis and Meiosis
Spermatogenesis
Spermatogenesis involves three processes
Mitosis
Meiosis
Spermiogenesis
Figure 28.7 Spermatogenesis
Anatomy of spermatozoon
Each spermatozoon has:
Head
Nucleus and densely packed chromosomes
Middle piece
Mitochondria that produce the ATP needed to move the tail
Tail
The only flagellum in the human body
Figure 28.8 Spermiogenesis and Spermatozoon Structure
Male reproductive tract
Testes produce mature spermatozoa
Sperm enter epididymus
Elongated tubule with head, body and tail regions
Monitors and adjusts fluid in seminiferous tubules
Stores and protects spermatozoa
Facilitates functional maturation of spermatozoa
Figure 28.9 The Epididymus
Ductus deferens AKA vas deferens
Begins at epididymus
Passes through inguinal canal
Enlarges to form ampulla
Ejaculatory duct at base of seminal vesicle and ampulla
Empties into urethra
Urethra
Urinary bladder to tip of penis
Three regions
Prostatic
Membranous
Penile
Accessory glands
Seminal vesicles
Active secretory gland
Contributes ~60% total volume of semen
Secretions contain fructose, prostaglandins, fibrinogen
Accessory glands
Prostate gland
Secretes slightly acidic prostate fluid
Bulbourethral glands
Secrete alkaline mucus with lubricating properties
Figure 28.10 The Ductus Deferens and Accessory Glands
Contents of Semen
Typical ejaculate = 2-5 ml fluid
Contains between 20 – 100 million spermatozoa per ml
Seminal fluid
A distinct ionic and nutritive glandular secretion
External genitalia
Male external genitalia consist of the scrotum and the penis
Skin overlying penis resembles scrotum
Penis
Contains three masses of erectile tissue
2 corpora cavernosa beneath fascia
1 corpus spongiosum surrounding urethra
Dilation of erectile tissue produces erection
Figure 28.11 The Penis
Hormones and male reproductive function
FSH (Follicle stimulating hormone)
Targets sustentacular cells to promote spermatogenesis
LH (leutinizing hormone)
Causes secretion of testosterone and other androgens
GnRH (Gonadotropin releasing hormone)
Testosterone
Most important androgen
Figure 28.12 Hormonal Feedback and the Regulation of the Male Reproductive Function

Chapter 28, part 1
The Reproductive System
SECTION 28-1 The Reproductive System
Learning Objectives
Specify the components of the reproductive system, and summarize their functions
Describe the components of the male and female reproductive systems
Outline the processes of meiosis and gametogenesis in both sexes
Explain the roles played by the male reproductive tract and accessory glands in the functional maturation, nourishment, storage, and transport of spermatozoa
Learning Objectives
Summarize the anatomical, physiological, and hormonal aspects of the male and female reproductive cycles
Discuss the physiology of sexual intercourse
Reproductive System
Reproductive system functions in gamete
Production
Storage
Nourishment
Transport
Fertilization
Fusion of male and female gametes to form a zygote
SECTION 28-1 Introduction to the Reproductive System
Reproductive system includes:
Gonads (testes, ovaries)
Ducts
Accessory glands and organs
External genitalia
Males and Females
Males
Testes produce spermatozoa
Expelled from body in semen during ejaculation
Females
Ovaries produce oocytes
Immature ovum
Travels along uterine tube toward uterus
Vagina connects uterus with exterior of body
SECTION 28-2 The Reproductive System of the Male
Male Reproductive System
Pathway of spermatozoa
Epididymis
Ductus deferens
Ejaculatory duct
Accessory organs
Seminal vesicles
Prostate gland
Bulbourethral glands
Scrotal sac encloses testes
Penis
Figure 28.1 The Male Reproductive System
The testes
Descent of the testes
Movement of testes through inguinal canal into scrotum
Occurs during fetal development
Testes remain connected to internal structures
Spermatic cords
Figure 28.2 The Descent of the Testes
Figure 28.2 The Descent of the Testes
Figure 28.3 The Male Reproductive System in Anterior View
Male Anatomy
Musculature of scrotal sac
Dartos muscle wrinkles scrotal sac
Cremaster muscle pulls sac close to body
Testes anatomy
Tunica albuginea surrounds testis
Septa extend from tunica albuginea to epididymus
Lobules
Sperm production
In seminiferous tubules
Interstitial cells between seminiferous tubules
Secrete sex hormones
Sperm pass through rete testis
Efferent ductules connect rete testis to epididymus
Figure 28.4 The Structure of the Testes

SECTION 22-6 B Cells and Antibody-mediated Immunity
B cell sensitization of activation
Sensitization – the binding of antigens to the B cell membrane antibodies
Antigens then displayed on B cell Class II MHC
TH cells activated by same antigen stimulate B cell
Active B cell differentiates into Memory B Cell or Plasma cell
Plasma cells synthesize and release antibody
Figure 22.20 The Sensitization and Activation of B Cells
Antibodies structure
Antibodies are Y-shaped proteins consisting of:
Two parallel polypeptide chains
Heavy chains and light chains
Constant region and variable region
Antigen binding site
Figure 22.21 Antibody Structure
Figure 22.21 Antibody Structure
Figure 22.21 Antibody Structure
Actions of antibodies include:
Neutralization
Agglutination and precipitation
Activation of complement
Attraction of phagocytes
Opsinization
Stimulation of inflammation
Prevention of adhesion
Classes of Antibodies (immunoglobins)
IgG – resistance against many viruses, bacteria and bacterial toxins
IgE – accelerates local inflammation
IgD – found on the surface of B cells
IgM – first type secreted after antigen arrives
IgA – primarily found in glandular sec
Primary and secondary antibody response
Primary response
Takes about two weeks to develop
The Lymphatic System and Immunity
Produced by plasma cells
Secondary response
Rapid increase in IgG
Maximum antibody titer app
Figure 22.22 The Primary and Secondary Immune Responses
Figure 22.23 An Integrated Summary of the Immune Response
Figure 22.25 The Course of the Body’s Response to Bacterial Infection
Focus on Hormones of the Immune System
Interleukins
Increase T cell sensitivity
Stimulate B cell activity, plasma formation, and antibody production
Enhance nonspecific defenses
Moderate the immune system
Interferons
Tumor Necrosis Factors (TNFs) slow tumor growth
Colony Stimulating Factors (CSFs)
SECTION 22-7 Normal and Abnormal Resistance
Development of the Immune Response
Immunological competence
The ability to demonstrate an immune response after exposure to an antigen
Fetuses receive immunity from the maternal bloodstream
Infants acquire immunity following exposure
Immune disorders
Autoimmune disorders
Immune response mistakenly targets normal cells
Immunodeficiency diseases
Immune system does not develop properly or is blocked
Allergies
Inappropriate or excessive immune response to allergens
Immediate hypersensitivity (type I)
Cytotoxic reactions (type II)
Immune complex disorders (type III)
Delayed hypersensitivity (type IV)
Anaphylaxis
Circulating allergen affects mast cells throughout body
Figure 22.26 The Mechanism of Anaphylaxis
Stress and the immune response
Interleukin-1 released by active macrophages
Triggers release of ACTH resulting in glucocorticoid release
Moderates the immune response
Lowers resistance to disease
Stress can cause the following:
Depression of the inflammatory response
Phagocytic reduction
Inhibition of interleukin secretion
SECTION 22-8 Aging and the Immune Response
With age
Immune system becomes less effective
Increased susceptibility to infection
Immune surveillance declines
You should now be familiar with:
The structure and function of lymphatic cells, tissues and organs
The body’s nonspecific defenses and the components and mechanisms of each
Specific resistance, cell-mediated immunity and antibody mediated immunity
The role of the T cell, B cell and antibodies in specific immunity
The origin, development, activation and regulation of normal resistance to disease
The effects of stress and aging on the immune system

Chapter 22, part 3
The Lymphatic System and Immunity
SECTION 22-4 Specific Defenses
Forms of immunity
Innate immunity
Genetically determined
Present at birth
Acquired immunity
Not present at birth
Achieved by exposure to antigen
Active immunity
Passive immunity
Figure 22.14 Types of Immunity
Properties of immunity
Specificity – activated by and responds to a specific antigen
Versatility – is ready to confront any antigen at any time
Memory – "remembers" any antigen it has encountered
Tolerance – responds to foreign substances but ignores normal tissues
The immune system response
Antigen triggers an immune response
Activates T cells and B cells
T cells are activated after phagocytes exposed to antigen
T cells attack the antigen and stimulate B cells
Activated B cells mature and produce antibody
Antibody attacks antigen
Figure 22.15 An Overview of the Immune Response
SECTION 22-5 T cells and Cell-mediated Immunity
Major types of T cells
Cytotoxic T cells (TC) – attack foreign cells
Helper T cells (TH) – activate other T cells and B cells
Suppressor T cells (TS) – inhibit the activation of T and B cells
Antigen presentation
Antigen-glycoprotein combination appears on a cell membrane
Called MHC proteins (Major Histocompatibility Complex)
Coded for by genes of the MHC
T-cells sensitive to the antigen are activated upon contact
MHC classes
Class I – found on all nucleated cells
Class II – found on antigen presenting cells and lymphocytes
Lymphocytes respond to antigens bound to either class I or class II MHC proteins
Antigen recognition
T cell membranes contain CD markers
CD3 markers present on all T cells
CD8 markers on cytotoxic and suppressor T cells
CD4 markers on helper T cells
Figure 22.16 Antigens and MHC Proteins
Figure 22.16 Antigens and MHC Proteins
Figure 22.16 Antigens and MHC Proteins
Activation of CD8 cells
Responds quickly giving rise to other T cells
Cytotoxic T cells – seek out and destroy abnormal cells
lymphotoxin
Memory TC cells – function during a second exposure to antigen
Suppressor T cells – suppress the immune response
Figure 22.17 Antigen Recognition and the Activation of Cytotoxic T Cells
Figure 22.17 Antigen Recognition and the Activation of Cytotoxic T Cells
Activation of CD4 T cells by antigens presented on class II MHC proteins
Produces helper T cells and memory T cells
Activated helper T cells
Secrete lymphokines that coordinate specific and nonspecific defenses
Enhance nonspecific defenses
Stimulate the activity of NK cells
Promote activation of B cells
Figure 22.18 Antigen Recognition and Activation of Helper T cells
Figure 22.19 A Summary of the Pathways of T Cell Activation

Chapter 22, part 2
The Lymphatic System and Immunity
The Thymus
Located behind sternum in anterior mediastinum
Capsule
Two lobes
Divided into lobules, each with a cortex and medulla
Cortical lymphocytes surrounded by reticular endothelial cells
Maintain blood–thymus barrier
Secretes thymic hormones: thymosins, thymopoietins, and thymulin
Figure 22.8 The Thymus
The Spleen
Largest mass of lymphoid tissue
Cellular components form pulp
Red pulp contains RBC
White pulp similar to lymphoid nodules
Spleen functions include
Removal of abnormal blood cells and other blood components
Storage of iron
Initiation of the specific immune response
Figure 22.9 The Spleen
Lymphatic system and body defenses
Nonspecific defenses
Do not distinguish one type of threat from another
7 types
Specific defenses
Protect against particular threats
Depend upon the activation of lymphocytes
SECTION 22-3 Nonspecific Defenses
Nonspecific Defenses, Physical barriers
Keep hazardous organisms outside the body
Includes hair, epithelia, secretions of integumentary and digestive systems
Figure 22.10 Nonspecific Defenses (Part 1 - Physical Barriers)
Nonspecific Defenses, Phagocytes
Remove cellular debris and respond to invasion by foreign pathogens
Monocyte-macrophage system - Fixed and free
Microphages – Neutrophils and eosinophils
Move by diapedesis
Exhibit chemotaxis
Figure 22.10 Nonspecific Defenses(Part 2 - Phagocytes)
Nonspecific Defenses, Immunological surveillance
Constant monitoring of normal tissue by NK cells
NK cells
Recognize cell surface markers on foreign cells
Destroy cells with foreign antigens
NK cell activation
Recognition of unusual surface proteins
Rotation of the Golgi toward the target cell and production of perforins
Release of perforins by exocytosis
Interaction of perforins causing cell lysis
Figure 22.10 Nonspecific Defenses(Part 3 - Immunological Surveillance)
Figure 22.11 How Natural Killer Cells Kill Cellular Targets
Nonspecific Defenses, Interferons (cytokines)
Small proteins released by virally infected cells
Trigger the production of antiviral proteins
Three major types of interferons are:
Alpha– produced by leukocytes and attract/stimulate NK cells
Beta– secreted by fibroblasts causing slow inflammation
Gamma – secreted by T cells and NK cells stimulate macrophage activity
Figure 22.10 Nonspecific Defenses(Part 4 - Interferons)
Nonspecific Defenses, Complement system
Cascade of ~11 plasma complement proteins (C)
Destroy target cell membranes
Stimulate inflammation
Attract phagocytes
Enhance phagocytosis
Complement proteins interact with on another via two pathways
Classical
Alternative
Figure 22.10 Nonspecific Defenses(Part 5 - Complement System)
Figure 22.12 Complement Activation
Nonspecific Defenses, Inflammation
Localized tissue response to injury producing
Swelling
Redness
Heat
Pain
Effects of inflammation include
Temporary repair of injury
Slowing the spread of pathogens
Mobilization of local, regional, and systemic defenses
Figure 22.10 Nonspecific Defenses(Part 6 - Inflammatory Response)
Figure 22.13 Inflammation
Nonspecific Defenses, Fever
Maintenance of a body temperature above 37.2oC (99oF)
Pyrogens reset the hypothalamic thermostat and raise body temperature
Pathogens, toxins, antigen-antibody complexes can act as pyrogens
Figure 22.10 Nonspecific Defenses(Part 7 - Fever)

Learning Objectives
Describe the structure and function of lymphatic cells, tissues and organs
List the body’s nonspecific defenses and describe the components and mechanisms of each
Define specific resistance and distinguish between cell-mediated immunity and antibody mediated immunity
Learning Objectives
Discuss the role of the T cell, B cell and antibodies in specific immunity
Describe the origin, development, activation and regulation of normal resistance to disease
Discuss the effects of stress and aging on the immune system
SECTION 22-1 An Overview of the Lymphatic System and Immunity
lymphatic system
The lymphatic system
Contains cells, tissues, and organs responsible for defending the body
Lymphocytes resist infection and disease by responding to
Invading pathogens such as bacteria or viruses
Abnormal body cells such as cancer cells
Foreign proteins such as toxins
Figure 22.1 The Components of the Lymphatic System
SECTION 22-2 Organization of the Lymphatic System
The lymphatic system consists of
Lymph
Lymphatic vessels
Lymphoid tissues and organs
Lymphocytes and supporting phagocytic cells
Functions of lymphatic system
Primary function is production, maintenance, and distribution of lymphocytes
Lymphocytes must:
Detect where problems exist
Be able to reach the site of injury or infection
Lymphatic vessels include
Lymphatic capillaries
Small lymphatic vessels
Major lymph-collecting vessels
Figure 22.2 Lymphatic Capillaries
Figure 22.3 Lymphatic Vessels and Valves
Major lymph-collecting vessels
Superficial and deep lymphatics
Thoracic duct
Cisterna chyli
Right lymphatic duct
Figure 22.4 The Relationship between the Lymphatic Ducts and the Venous System
Figure 22.4 The Relationship between the Lymphatic Ducts and the Venous System
Figure 22.4 The Relationship between the Lymphatic Ducts and the Venous System
Lymphocytes
Three classes of lymphocytes
T (thymus dependent) cells
B (bone marrow-derived) cells
NK (natural killer) cells
Lymphocyte production (lymphopoiesis)
Involves bone marrow, thymus, and peripheral lymphoid tissue
B cells and NK cells mature in bone marrow
T cells mature in the thymus
Figure 22.5 The Derivation and Distribution of Lymphocytes
Lymphoid tissue
Connective tissue dominated by lymphocytes
Lymphoid nodules
Lymphocytes densely packed in areolar tissue
Found in the respiratory, digestive, and urinary tracts
MALT (mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue)
Collection of lymphoid tissues linked with the digestive system
Figure 22.6 Lymphoid Nodules
Lymphoid organs
Lymph nodes – function in the purification of lymph
Afferent lymphatics – carry lymph to nodes
Efferent lymphatics – carry lymph from nodes
Deep cortex dominated by T cells
Outer cortex and medulla contains B cells
Figure 22.7 The Structure of a Lymph Node